Discussion-MODULE 11 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion-MODULE 11 - Essay Example The Mongolian World system lasted between 1206 and 1405. Genghis Khan expanded the Mongolian empire to the Pacific Ocean while his grandson expanded the empire into China. The Ming world system defeated the Mongolian system under the leadership of Zheng He. This system lasted between 1368 and 1644. The Ming world system led to the spread of Confucianism, great artistry, and economic growth. From lecture, the video "Chinese Treasure Fleets,† and the primary source reading, we derive that Zheng He was a fleet admiral who led the Ming Dynasty. He went for seven voyages to over 30 countries in Africa, South Asia, Persian Gulf, and the Pacific. Zheng He travelled between 1405 and 1433 to expand the Chinese maritime in Asia and establishing commercial networks across the pacific and Indian oceans. He led a fleet of high-tech and large trading vessels for expedition. Zheng He prioritized diplomacy but also adopted military tactics to assert Chinese influence. Zheng He’s ships were high-tech since they were long, fashionable, and could carry all the other ships by renowned explorers like Columbus. According to lecture and the article by Alfred Crosby, the â€Å"Columbian Exchange† related to the exchange of livestock, traditions, plants, knowledge, technology, and people between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia. Maize and potatoes were important plants in the â€Å"Columbian Exchange† since they were staple foods, dominated bilateral trade, and enhanced population growth in the two

The History Of Walt Disney Film Studies Essay

The History Of Walt Disney Film Studies Essay Animation is the allusion of movement through the persistence of vision. It dates back to as early as 1650 in Paleolithic cave painting, where animals were often drawn with multiple sets of overlapping legs. Although some argue that this could simply represent the artists changing their minds about leg position, most perceive these paintings as early attempts to portray motion. The zoetrope, a cylinder with vertical slits in the sides, is another example of early animation, as the inner surface of the cylinder has a band of sequenced pictures that produce the illusion of motion as the user looks at the pictures through the slits as it spins. Since cave paintings and the zoetrope, other forms of animation have been established, including stop motion, 3D animation, motion capture, rotoscope, film, etc. Numerous people have contributed to the world of animation and amongst those is Walt Disney. Just to name a few of his accomplishment, Walt was the first to add a music and effect track to a cartoon. He produced the first commercially released film produced in the full-color three-strip Technicolor process. He made the first full-length animated film. He was one of the first to use television as an entertainment medium and he created the theme park. Furthermore, no conversation pertaining to animation is complete without the mention of Disneys name, as his groundbreaking design and assembly techniques moved him to the vanguard of the animation industry. The impact Walt Disneys works continue to have on animation today is possible through the love and dedication he had for art and animation. Walter Elias Walt Disney was one of five children. He was born on December 5, 1901, in Chicago, Illinois to Elias and Flora Disney. He lived in Marceline, Missouri for most of his childhood, which is where he developed his love for art. Although Walts father did not support his interests in art, his mother and brother always encouraged him to pursue his talents. While living in Missouri, Disney began drawing, painting, and selling pictures to neighbors and family friends, as he needed extra money considering that his family was living in poverty. When he was about ten, Disney moved to Kansas City, Missouri where his uncle Mike Martin was a train engineer. Being in his uncles company, Walt developed a love for trains, which resulted in a summer job selling newspapers and snacks to travelers at the railroad. Disney later moved back to Chicago and attended McKinley High School. Walt continued to pursue animation upon his return to Chicago, as he enrolled in drawing and photography class es at McKinley and was a contributing cartoonist for the school paper. In addition, Disney took night classes at the Chicago Art Institute. At the age of sixteen, Disney dropped out of school to join the army during World War I. He was rejected because he was underage. Since he could not join the army, Walt moved to France and drove an ambulance for a year instead. He never stopped drawing. When he returned from France in 1919, Disney moved back to Kansas City, where he planned to pursue a career as a newspaper artist. His brother Roy helped him reach this goal, as he landed him a job with Pesmen-Rubin Art Studio. While working there, Walt met cartoonist Ubbe Iwerks, which led to him working as a commercial artist for the Kansas City Film Ad Company, where he made animations based on cutouts. While working for the ad company, Walt continued to explore his options. He began experimenting with a camera, doing hand-drawn cel animation. His interest led to his opening of his own animation business and he recruited Fred Harman, from the ad company, as his first employee.  Disney and Harman screened their cartoons, Laugh-O-Grams, with Kansas City Theater and their cartoons success resulted in Disney getting his own studio. Walt hired a few other employees and together they combined both live action and animation to create the series Alice in Cartoonland. Unfortunately, Walt had to file for bankruptcy in 1923 because the studio was in serious debt, but this misfortune led to better things. Walt relocated to Los Angeles and collaborated with Roy and Iwerks to create Disney Brothers Studio. Their first deal was to distribute their  Alice  cartoons with New York distributor Margaret Winkler. While working with Winkler, they invented a character called Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, and contracted the shorts at fifteen thousand dollars each.  A few years later, Disney realized that Winkler, her husband, and other Disney animators stole the rights to Oswald. He did not let this mishap discourage him, as this discovery paved the way for the infamous Mickey Mouse, which earned Disney his first Academy Award, an Honorary Award for the creation of Mickey Mouse. Walt had been developing Mickey for a while before he released the first animated shorts featuring Mickey, Plane Crazy  and  The Gallopin Gaucho. Both of these films were silent and failed to find distribution; however, Disneys third sound-and-music-equipped short called  Steamboat Willie, was a big hit, as Disney was the first to add a music and effect track to a cartoon. Walt still had more trends to set and boundaries to break. In 1929, Disney created  Silly Symphonies, which featured Mickeys newly created friends: Minnie Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, and Pluto. One of the most popular cartoons, Flowers and Trees, was the first commercially released film produced in the full-color three-strip Technicolor process and it went on to earn Disney his second Academy Award, for Best Short.   As if that was not extraordinary enough, in 1933  The Three Little Pigs  and its title song Whos Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf? became Americas theme during the Great Depression.  This resulted in Disneys third Academy Award, another for Best Short. In 1937,  Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the first full-length animated film, premiered in Los Angeles, producing one and a half million dollars, despite the Depression. It also won eight Oscars. During the next five years, Walt Disney Studios completed animated films, Pinocchio,  Fantasia,  Dumbo,  and  Bambi. By the time of Walts death,  Disneys Brother Studio had produced more than 100 features. Disneys last major success that he produced himself was the motion picture  Mary Poppins, which mixed live action and animation. Disney was one of the first to use television as an entertainment medium. The  Zorro,  Davy Crockett, and The Mickey Mouse Club (known today as Mickey Mouse Clubhouse) series were extremely popu lar with children. Although Mickey is responsible for majority of Disneys initial success, his accomplishments did not end there. Walt Disney also invented the theme park. Disneyland theme park opened in 1955. It was designed for children and their families to explore, meet Disney characters, and enjoy rollercoaster rides. Disney used Walt Disneys Wonderful World of Color, a popular Sunday night show, to begin promoting his new theme park. In a very short period, it became a tourists attraction for people worldwide. Because of the success of Disneyland, Disney began plans for a new theme park in Florida. It was still under construction when Walt died from lung cancer at the age of sixty-six on December 15, 1966. Following Walts death, Roy took on the responsibility of finishing the Florida theme park, which opened in 1971. He named it Walt Disney World after his late brother. The Walt Disney Company launched its own television channel on April 18, 1983. The Original Disney Channel (1983-1997) marketed primarily towards younger children, with series such as Still the Beaver, The Baby-sitters Club, Five Mile Creek, Flash Forward, Adventures in Wonderland, Vault Disney, etc. In 1997, a new pre-teen programming took hold, with shows such as Smart Guy, Bug Juice, Jett Jacksons, and more. Later Zoog Disney attempted to connect the television and internet, giving kids who played online games an opportunity to see their names on television. From 2001 to 2002, Disneys ratings grew higher and it was about ninety percent basic cable programming. Pre-teens started watching the newer shows like, Even Stevens, Kim Possible, Lizzie McGuire and more, leading to the collapse of classic Disney programming. In recent years, the diversity of viewers has increased even more with an older audience of teenagers, young adults and families, from over one-hundred and sixty countri es and twenty languages. Walts interest in animating developed at a young age, as he drew and painted pictures to sell to his neighbors and family friends to earn extra money as a child. Walt quickly turned his hustle into a passion, as he enrolled in drawing and photography classes at McKinley high school and took classes at the Chicago Art Institute at night. Even when Walt was no longer in school, he continued to enhance his skills. He never stopped drawing, or trying to entertain others. No matter the trials and tribulations he faced, he never lost sight of his dream. When his first studio suffered from debt, he collaborated with his brother and old friend to open a new one. When his partners betrayed him and stole the rights to his first commercially successful character, Disney took it as an opportunity to release a new character. It is obvious Walt dedicated his life to his work, from his childhood to his death; thus, proving his love and dedication to animation is responsible for the success he has h ad in animating and the impact he continues to have on animation today.

The Dance of The Body without Organs Essay -- Electronics Essays

The Dance of The Body without Organs My current project employs the concept of the Body w/o Organs as a model of artistic process to undermine social, scientific, and political hierarchies used in organizing our states of consciousness and embodiment. By arriving at a location of stillness, or â€Å"zero intensity† through this process of dislocating normative structures; new structures, configurations, and organizations will emerge that reflect local, emotional, or irrational consistencies. The project exists in several instantiations, including immersive virtual environments, networked art, 3-D modeling, and texts. Body w/o Organs, Deleuze and Guattari, Artaud, Virtual Reality, Virtual Environment, Irrationality, Surrealism, Visible Human Project 1.0 Situating Subjectivity â€Å"My mind became a place of refuge, an sanctuary, a room I could enter with no fear of invasion. My mind became a site of resistance.† (hooks, 1991) Located as a privileged subject relative to race and gender; I am at a transitional place regarding power relations. My upbringing as a white male of a middle class family in a line of Scottish farmers immigrating to the rural Midwestern US roots me in the blood-soaked soil of the Klu Klux Klan. I was born and raised 20 years after and 30 miles from Marion, Indiana, site of countless barbaric lynchings of African Americans. My sympathies betrayed the hegemonic classifications of my own body and color of flesh. I lined up with the victims, not with my kin. My desire to be done with the coding of the politics of identity in my flesh increased my sense of disembodiment. My own betrayal of skin and kin accompanied by the undeniable privilege afforded me by the embodied coding of race has created a ... ...cal and theoretical issues related to the technologies of immersive virtual reality, netart, and avatars; specifically with respect to issues of identity, embodiment, and human sentience. He has presented and exhibited his work in numerous international venues, including Ars Electronica, Invencao, Consciousness Reframed, Webs of Discourse, CADE, as well as museums, galleries, and alternative spaces. His essay, â€Å"A Manifesto for Avatars† was published in Intertexts in 1998. At present he is a visiting researcher at the Virtual Reality Centre at the University of Teesside, and at the CAVE Lab, New Media Center, The University of Michigan. He is a Visiting Assistant Professor of Computer Art/New Media at Bowling Green State University, and an Assistant Professor of Art at Kent State University. http://www.stark.kent.edu/~glittle http://www.oberlin.net/~glittle

A beauty

Talking about Charles Newman in the story Charles is a dear friend of the writer The writer views Charles as beautiful Other people think Charles is beautiful The beauty the writer sees in Charles is not hindered by anything he says or does Charles has soft blonde hair and blue eyes Charles is unmarried â€Å"The thing I liked least about Charlie was his way of carrying on with several women P. 56 Charles has a steady girlfriend at a time†¦ † Charles has a side girlfriend Although Charles is imperfect the writer expresses still seeing the beauty in CharlesThe writer rates the Subject in a way to present the flaws of the character but also the ability to love him in spite of It. The writer expresses being close to beauty can make one feel more beautiful and worthy themselves regardless of their own inherent qualities Charles was loyal to friends Charles had a way with people Charles was blessed with good looks, this made things easier for him, and his friends. Charles enjo yed the finer things, such as museums and art It's not easy to abandon the Idea that beauty can never really be skin deep, that nine beauty is not only unproblematic but also somehow a sign of an essential goodness.P. 57 The writer equates beauty with wholesomeness The writer Is male and married The writer has no need to fear Charles beauty Charles Is slightly flawed but a person who none the less was â€Å"Beautiful†. Charles Is better able to understand or relate to the people around him because his beauty does more than simply draw people to him, It puts him In situations where he Is able to understand or relate to the people around him because of It ResponseI couldn't understand why the writer chose Charles as the subject I did Identify with dismissing my loved ones flaws I also Identified with dwellings some of the actions of attractive people I liked the point about, beautiful people being able to lead and teach I also liked the point about, beautiful people being more comfortable and because of It the are able to network and meet new people. I was Interested to find at the middle of the story that the writer was a man.I was also Interested by the what the writer may have meet hen he spoke of how and who Charles had left his Thales,upon passing away. I liked that my feelings about the subject continued to change as the essay evolved. A beauty By lea_lactate the ability to love him in spite of it. The writer expresses being close to beauty can It's not easy to abandon the idea that beauty can never really be skin deep, that The writer is male and married Charles is slightly flawed but a person who none the less was â€Å"Beautiful†.Charles is does more than simply draw people to him, it puts him in situations where he is able o understand or relate to the people around him because of it I couldn't understand why the writer chose Charles as the subject I did identify with I also identified with dismissing some of the actions of attractive peo ple I liked the about, beautiful people being more comfortable and because of it the are able to network and meet new people.

High school Essay

It was once thought that when a person gets out of high school, he is invisible. He can do whatever he wants, achieve all his dreams and aspirations, and become the person that he always envisioned himself to be. It probably never daunted him that he will become independent and responsible for the consequences of his actions; he would have treated those like simple challenges anyway. Obstacles that he needed to conquer in order to make him a stronger person and to reach his destination. And all this he would achieve, amazingly with the help of the environment. The environment does not literally translate to the trees, the suburbs, or the urban metro that we have come to know as an environment. It essentially means much more than that. It is how a person adapts to where he is. It is how he makes things work to his advantage, and at the same time not harming those around him. It is how he makes his life work, whatever the given circumstance. There are several ways on how to mold the environment and make it a part of the learning experience that will help an individual achieve his goals, find better jobs, and have self-satisfaction. It is important to note that a student has to realize the importance of getting a college degree. He will realize that the environment is competitive enough to require it. It is through what he experiences that he will come to know the importance of getting into college and in learning through the environment, he will realize that he has succeeded Time management is one of those ways on how the environment plays a key role in a person’s learning experience. As much as every person would want to control time, there are instances wherein it will always spin out of control. The heavy traffic, the weather, the floods, the mode of transportation – these are all elements that we cannot predict and therefore we cannot control. Due to the unpredictability of these factors, one must always manage his time wisely, with allotment for situations like this. Being organized, following a routine and a flow of tasks also says that a person is disciplined. He has the strength to say no to distractions because he knows that he has allotted an ample time for everything, even for play. And temptation is one of the numerous obstacles that humans go through in dealing with their daily lives. The environment’s role in being able to overcome obstacles is that when we look hard enough, the answers are just out there, around us. It is magical that we sometimes have the answers right in front of us and yet we fail to recognize them. Everybody knows that we will never be given problems that we cannot solve. In trying to solve our problems, we get to know and discover ourselves more; the things that make us stronger, the emotions that make us weak. In discovering these unknown side of ourselves we create more options, we get to know more. If a person once said to himself that getting a college degree is not worth his time, effort, and money, this may not hold true if he was faced with an employment problem. The environment today is competitive enough to want more from its employees, and these employers do compensate for this. It is during the toughest times that we get to see the real attitudes of the people. Those who strive to outshine the rest will not just settle for a high school diploma, but for a higher one. Everybody’s goal in life is to become successful in whatever his or her endeavors are. It may be as small as finishing a 5-kilometer run or as big as running for the presidential seat, what we all want is success. For the individual whose environment shapes him to become the next big CEO, more qualifications have to be met. A college degree or an MBA will definitely make him go places and put an edge to his resume. It is not only in this career path that a higher education will prove to be useful, in fact, in all career paths, a higher education is always a better credential. Becoming a lawyer, a physician, an engineer, or a nurse may put you through the worst, sleepless nights you have ever had, but the end game is always a win. While one may not always understand why people want to have success and always feel like achieving a desire or attaining a goal, it is important that they know that they are working hard for themselves. There is nothing better than knowing that you have worked hard for something and you got what you wanted in the end. Reaping the fruits of your labor brings a sense of pride and self-satisfaction to one’s self. Everything that one has to work hard for, the stress of the environment, the pressure of achievement, overcoming these is necessary in order to achieve lifetime goals. In conclusion, working on lifetime goals allow people to see how hard work and studying can pay off for the future. The changing environment affects everyone differently. Employer’s at times allow employees to work on their studies while they are at work and offer the students reimbursements for their college work. For students who finish their degree, it will open many doors for them in advancing at their current professions. Students that complete their degree will have a sense of pride and accomplishment that was taken by them for all of their hard work and effort. The environment of each student is different. The variation of the stressful environments is different for each student. Some have family stress and some have work stress. Time management is a determining factor in each of these areas. It is crucial that the student completes all required materials when the assignments are due. When students look back and realize what they have accomplished they will know that they bettered themselves by working in this new environment. References: Jewell, D, (2008). One vision many paths. ProQuest Database, 16(9), Retrieved December 28, 2008, from http://proquest. umi. comezproxy. apus. edu Khalifa, M. & Lam, R. (2002). Web based learning: Effects on Learning Process and Outcome. Academic Search Premier Database, 45(4), Retrieved December 28, 2008, from, http://apus. agent-graphics. com. ezproxy. apus. edu Littky, D (2004). The big picture: Education is everyone’s business. APUS online library, Retrieved December 28, 2008, from http://web. ebscohost. com. ezproxy. apus. edu/ehost/detail .Ramey, S. & Ramey, C. (2008). The Learning environment, learning process, academic outcomes and career success of university graduates: The transition to school. Academic Search Premier Database, 33(4), Retrieved December 28, 2008, from http://web. ebscohost. com. ezproxy. apus. edu/ehost/detail Williams, K. (2006) Introducing Management: A Development Guide. APUS online library, Retrieved December 28, 2008, from http://apus. agent-graphics. com. ezproxy. apus. edu Zygmunt-Fillwalk, E. (2006). Encouraging School Success through family Involvement. Proquest Database, 82 (4), Retrieved December 28, 2008, from http://proquest. umi. comezproxy. apus. edu.

Jack Kilby Inventor essays

Jack Kilby Inventor essays How exactly does one define a Mover and Shaker? That is the question I had to ask myself before I could determine who this essay should be about. For the purposes of this paper I defined a Mover and Shaker as someone who tackled one of the issues of their time; however, I also felt that it was important that they accomplished this solution to an old problem by looking at the situation with a very new and different perspective. On the surface Jack Kilby (pictured to the right) is a very accomplished individual. He owns more than 60 patents, is a Nobel Prize winner, and is even inducted into the Inventors Hall of Fame (Texas Institute, par. 8). The real question remains, what did he do and why did he do it? Jack Kilby (along with Robert Noyce) invented the integrated circuit which has lead to the very powerful semi-conductors in our computers today. The rest of this paper will discuss the topic of why he was able to invent something so revolutionary. In his autobiography written for the Nobel Committee, Mr. Kilby discusses some of the significant events in his life. I found it very interesting to note that his father ran an electronics company, thereby giving him an exposure to the world of electronics at a very young age. His fathers goal in his company was to do whatever it took to run his business and to help people (Nobel par. 4). He continues on to tell us that it was amateur radio that really sparked his interest in electronics. While at the University of Illinois he studied electrical engineering, but with his early love for electronics he also dabbled in some vacuum engineering physics classes. While working for a small electronics manufacturer, he continued to work on his studies in the evenings, eventually receiving a Masters Degree in Engineering from the University of Wisconsin. He makes the comment that working and going to school present some challenges, but it c...

Medicine in Ancient Egypt Essays

Medicine in Ancient Egypt Essays Medicine in Ancient Egypt Paper Medicine in Ancient Egypt Paper Essay Topic: Burial Rites Love Medicine People sometimes say that the ancient Egyptian civilization endured without much change for more than three thousand years. This is only partially true because, in fact, Egyptian ways of life, philosophy, religion, language, and art changed considerably over time. However, the ancient Egyptian culture retained its identity and general character to a remarkable degree over the course of its history: a situation due in part to Egypt’s favorable and secure location. Essentially a river oasis, the country was bordered by deserts to the west and east, by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and by the first cataract of the Nile at Aswan in the south. Situated in the northeastern corner of Africa, Egypt was a center for trade routes to and from western Asia, the Mediterranean, and central Africa. Ancient Egyptian medicine is the medicine that was commonly practiced in Ancient Egypt from circa 3300BC until Persian invasion of 525 BC. The medicine was highly advanced for the time and included surgery, setting of bones and extensive set of Pharmacopoeia. Remedies were sometimes characterized by magical incantations and dubious ingredients, often had a rational basis. Medical texts specified specific steps of examination, diagnosis, prognosis and treatments that were rational and appropriate. The practices of Egyptian physicians ranged from embalming, to faith healing to surgery, and autopsy. There was no separation of Physician, Priest and Magician in Egypt. Healing was an art that was addressed on many levels during ancient Egyptian period Modern medicine owes much to the Ancient Egyptians. Historians divide the history of Ancient Egypt ancient Egypt into: Prehistory (up to ca. 3100 B. C. ), the Archaic Period (ca. 3100- 2650 B. C. ) the Old Kingdom (ca. 2650-2150 B. C. ), the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2040-1640 B. C. ), the New Kingdom (ca. 1550-1070 B. C. ), the Late Period (ca. 712-332 B. C. ), and the Ptolemaic (Hellenistic) and Roman Periods (332 B. C. -A. D. 395). The main sources of information about ancient Egyptian medicine were writings from antiquity until 19th century as in Odyssey (800B. C), observations recorded by Greek historian Herodotus (440BC), writings of Pliny the Elder. The father of modern medicine Hippocrates (ca 460BC-370BC), Herophilos (ca335-280 BC) Erasistratus (ca 310 BC-250BC, who founded a school of anatomy) and Galen studied at the temple of Amenhotep and acknoledged the contribution of ancient Egyptian medicine to Greek medicine. Much of what we now know of Egyptian medicine and the work of the physicians come from a variety of medical documents written by physician-priests. These documents, known as papyrus are the first known records of medical practice. The various papyrus documents that have been recovered and translated show us that the Egyptians had developed an understanding of medicine. The evidence provided by these early medical training manuals is quite remarkable. They show quite clearly that the Egyptians had identified and developed cures for a wide range of diseases, many of which cures are still in use today. Such was the extent of Egyptian knowledge that there are records of over 800 medical procedures and remedies making use of over 600 drugs and a vast array of surgical tools. A few papyri have survived, from which we can learn about Egyptian medicine: The Edwin Smith Papyrus describing surgical diagnosis and treatments: opens with eight texts concerning head wounds, followed by nineteen treatments of wounds to the face, six descriptions of how to deal with injuries to throat and neck, five dealing with collar-bones and Ancient Egypt arms, and seven with chest complaints. Some important notions concerning the nervous system originated with the Egyptians, a word for brain is used here for the first time in any written language: â€Å"the membrane enveloping his brain, so that it breaks open his fluid in the interior of his head† (The Edwin Smith papyrus, case6). Acting conservatively, they knew how to treat injuries to the brain without killing the patient, but on the whole their understanding of the brain and its functions was superficial: they considered thinking to be a function of the heart. Their dissection of bodies during mummification seems not to have added greatly to their knowledge of the inner workings of the human body, possibly because mummifiers and physicians did not move in the same circles. The Ebers Papyrus on ophthalmology, diseases of the digestive system, the head, the skin and specific maladies like aAa, which some think may have been a precursor of AIDS and others consider to have been a disease of the urinary tract. Kahun Gynecological Papyrus, the Berlin Medical papyrus, the London Medical Papyrus, the Hearst medical papyrus and the Demotic magical Papyrus of London and Leiden: contains a number of spells for treating physical ailments, also give extensive information about the medicine during ancient Egypt. The cause of diseases, Anatomy, Physiology and practices The human body was believed to be born in a healthy state, and could not fall ill or die except through the influence of a foreign agent. In case of wounds or intestinal worms, that agent was visible and the treatment prescribed was hence rational. As they were not aware of microbiology, internal diseases were thought to be due to an occult force attributed to evil gods, a divine punishment or magical procedures. The physician was obliged to neutralize this evil Ancient Egypt before turning into actual treatment. The use of Autopsy came through the extensive embalming practices of the Egyptians, as it was not unlikely for an embalmer to examine the body for a cause of the illness which killed it. The use of surgery also evolved from a knowledge of the basic anatomy and embalming practices of the Egyptians. From such careful observations made by the early medical practitioners of Egypt, healing practices began to center upon both the religious rituals and the lives of the ancient Egyptians. The prescription for a healthy life, which was always given by a member of the priestly caste, meant that an individual undertook the stringent and regular purification rituals, and maintained their dietary restrictions against raw fish and other animals considered unclean to eat. In addition to a purified lifestyle, it was not uncommon for the Egyptians to undergo dream analysis to find a cure or cause for illness, as well as to ask for a priest to aid them with magic, this example obviously portrays that religious magical rites and purificatory rites were intertwined in the healing process as well as in creating a proper lifestyle. The practice of medicine was fairly advanced in Ancient Egypt, with Egyptian physicians having a wide and excellent reputation. Sovereigns from foreign lands have frequently appealed to pharaohs to send them their physicians. A wall painting in a Thebean grave of the 18th dynasty (1400 BC) depicts â€Å"Nebamun†, scribe and physician of the king, receiving a Syrian prince paying him for his services in gifts. According to Herodotus, King Cyrus of Persia has requested Amasis (Ahmose II of the 26th dynasty, 560 BC) to send him the most skilful of all the Egyptian eye-doctors. Egyptian physicians recognized the heart as the source of blood vessels. They were aware that the blood vessels were hollow, having a mouth which opens to absorb medications, Ancient Egypt eliminate waste elements, distribute air and body secretions and excretions, in confusion between blood vessels and other passages, as ureters. The physiology of blood circulation was demonstrated in the Edwin Smith Papyrus, together with its relation to the heart, as well as awareness of the importance of the pulse. They also knew that blood supply runs from the heart to all organs of the body. â€Å"There are vessels in him for every part of the body†. â€Å"It speaks forth in the vessels of every body part† (Edwin Smith Papyrus) However, their inability to distinguish between blood vessels, nerves, tendons and channels has limited their full understanding of the physiology of circulation. The diseases: The common cold plagued the ancient Egyptians as it still does us today, and their remedy, the milk of a mother who has given birth to a boy, was probably as effective as anything we have got today. Insect, especially scorpion bites or snake bites, both very frequent in Egypt, were treated by magicians, as there appears to have been no specific balm or ointment used, and as we have records of many spells, written on papyri and magical charms devoted to these two occurrences. Bilharziasis (schistosomiasis) a common disease in a country flooded for months every year a common cause of anemia, female infertility, a debilitating loss of resistance to other diseases and subsequent death. The Ebers Papyrus addresses some of the symptoms of the disease and in two columns discusses treatment and prevention of bleeding in the urinal tract (haematuria). The Hearst Papyrus cites antimony disulfide as a remedy. Insect borne diseases like malaria and trachoma were endemic; plagues spread along the trade routes and a number of yadet renpet epidemics reported in Egyptian documents are thought by some to Ancient Egypt have been outbreaks of bubonic plague. Smallpox, measles, and cholera were easily propagated in the relatively densely populated Nile valley, where practically the whole population lived within a narrow strip of land. Silicosis of the lungs, the result of breathing in airborne sand particles, was a frequent cause of death, as was pneumonia. The various kinds of malignant tumors were almost as frequent then as they are nowadays in comparable age and gender groups. Eye infections are a common complaint in Africa. In ancient Egypt they were at least in part prevented by the application of bactericidal eye paint. The ingredients of some of the remedies may not have been as difficult to come by in a civilization where the brain was removed in little bits from the skull during mummification as it would be in a modern western country. ‘Prescription for the eye, to be used for all diseases which occur in this organ: Human brain, divide into its two halves, mix one half with honey, smear on the eye in the evening, dry the other half, mash, sift, smear on the eye in the morning’(Ebers Papyrus). Open wounds were often treated with honey. But sometimes lockjaw set in. When a tetanus infection was recognized, physicians knew they were powerless against this affliction. Dietary Deficiencies: A restricted diet caused or aggravated a number of ailments; some with fatal outcome . There were times when malnutrition was widespread. Growth of the population was therefore often stunted. Because of vitamin and other deficiencies, dental abrasion, and bad mouth hygiene, caries and abscesses were the lot of many. Herbal medicines: Herbs played a major part in Egyptian medicine. The plant medicines mentioned in the Ebers papyrus include opium, cannabis, myrrh, frankincense, fennel, cassia, Ancient Egypt senna, thyme, henna, juniper, aloe, linseed and castor oil. Cloves of garlic have been found in Egyptian burial sites. Egyptians thought garlic and onions aided endurance, and consumed large quantities of them. Raw garlic was routinely given to asthmatics and to those suffering with bronchial-pulmonary complaints. Coriander (C. Sativum) was considered to have cooling, stimulant, carminative and digestive properties. Cumin (Cumin cyminum) is an umbelliferous herb indigenous to Egypt. The seeds were considered to be a stimulant and effective against flatulence. Cumin powder mixed with some wheat flour as a binder and a little water was applied to relieve the pain of any aching or arthritic joints. Tape worms, the snakes in the belly, were dealt with by an infusion of pomegranate root in water, which was strained and drunk. Ulcers were treated with yeast, as were stomach ailments. Some of the medicines were made from plant materials imported from abroad. Mandrake, introduced from Canaan and grown locally since the New Kingdom, was thought to be an aphrodisiac and, mixed with alcohol, induced unconsciousness. Oil of fir, an antiseptic, originated in the Levant. The Persian henna was grown in Egypt since the Middle Kingdom, and if identical with henu mentioned in the Ebers Papyrus was used against hair loss. They treated catarrh with aloe which came from eastern Africa. Frankincense, containing tetrahydrocannabinol and used like hashish as pain killer, was imported from Punt. Animal products and minerals were used too. Honey and grease formed part of many wound treatments, mothers milk was occasionally given against viral diseases like the common cold, fresh meat laid on open wounds and sprains, and animal dung was thought to be effective at times. Malachite used as an eye-liner also had therapeutic value. In a country where eye Ancient Egypt infections were endemic, the effects of its germicidal qualities were appreciated even if the reasons for its effectiveness were not understood. Pregnancy and childbirth: Fertility was important to the Egyptians and the Kahun Gynecological Papyrus includes a number of tests for it. At the same time there seems to have existed the need for planning pregnancies. Silphium grown in Cyrene was famous for many medical qualities, including its contraceptive properties. They also devised the first known pregnancy test: Means for knowing if a woman will give birth or will not give birth: (Put) some barley and some wheat (into two bags of cloth) which the woman will moisten with her urine every day, equally barley and grain in the two bags. If both the barley and the wheat sprout she will give birth. If (only) the barley germinates it will be a boy, if it is the wheat which alone germinates it will be a girl. If neither germinates she will not give birth (Berlin papyrus 3. 038) The Ebers papyrus mentions two remedies which cause all to come out which is in the stomach of a woman, possibly referring to inducing a miscarriage. Birth itself was dangerous both to the mother and the baby. Infant mortality was high, probably around 30 percent, and complications and child bed fever killed many women. Surgery: At Saqqara there is the tomb of Ankh-Mahor, known as The Tomb of the Physician. In one of the wall pictures two men are having their extremities treated variously explained as manicure, massage or surgery. Another picture shows the performance of a circumcision of adolescents (the only instance of a depiction of this procedure) with the hieroglyphs saying The ointment is used to make it acceptable, which has been interpreted as meaning that a local Ancient Egypt anesthetic was being used, though this reading is, as happens often in such inscriptions, doubtful. Poppies are occasionally mentioned in Egyptian medical literature and the physicians had a pretty good idea of their properties. Boys destined for priesthood were circumcised as part of the initial ritual cleansing, which also included the shaving of the whole body. The practice of circumcision became more universal during the Late Period, perhaps as part of a rite of passage. Prostheses and cosmetics: Prostheses were generally of a cosmetic character, such as an artificial toe made of cartonnage at the British Museum, or added as a preparation for afterlife such as a forearm on a mummy in Arlington Museum (England) and an artificial penis and feet on another mummy in the Manchester Museum . Wooden big toe prosthesis has also been found in a fifty to sixty year old woman, after her big toe had been amputated, possibly because of gangrene. A glass eye with a white eyeball and a black pupil, but lacking an iris, was probably inserted into the empty eye socket of a mummy rather than used by a living person. Physicians performed other cosmetic tasks as well. Apart from prescribing lotions, salves and unguents for skin care, they also produced remedies against the loss of hair and graying, which was combated by an ointment made with blood from the horn of a black bull. Hair loss was hoped to be stopped by a mixture of honey and fats from crocodiles, lions, hippos, cats, snakes, and ibex. Dentistry: As their diet included much abrasive material (sand and small stone particles from grinding the corn) the teeth of the ancient Egyptians were generally in a very poor state. Caries and the destruction of the enamel caused the loss of teeth at an early age and often killed as well. Caries were sometimes treated by fillings made of resin and chrysocolla, a greenish mineral containing copper. Swollen gums were treated with a concoction of cumin, incense and Ancient Egypt onion. Opium might be given against severe pain. At times holes were drilled into the jawbone in order to drain abscesses. But extraction of teeth, which might have saved the lives of many a patient, was rarely if ever practiced. The profession of dental physician seems to have existed since the early third millennium: Hesi-re is the first known Doctor of the Tooth. Physicians: The ancient Egyptian word for doctor is swnw. Hesi-re was the earliest recorded physician and the lady Peseshet (2400BC) may be the first recorded female doctor. Most famous of the Egyptian physicians is Imhotep, who is also renowned for his role as a Pyramid designer. Imhotep used a variety of methods to heal patients but based much of their practice upon religious belief. It was common for different priests to act as physicians for different parts of the body, in much the same way that doctors specialize now, as they believed that different gods governed different sectors of the human body. Medical institutions were known to have established in ancient Egypt since as early as the 1st dynasty (3100- 2600BC) and by 19th dynasty (1550-1070 BC) their employees enjoyed benefits like medical insurance, pensions and sick leave and they worked 8hours a day. Magic and religion: Magic and religion were part of everyday life in ancient Egypt and Gods and demons were thought to be responsible for many illness. So often the treatments involved a supernatural element: the first attempt was an appeal to a deity. Priests and magicians were called on to treat the disease instead or in addition to a physician. Physicians often used incantations and magical ingredients as a part of the treatment and many medicines apparently lacked active ingredients. The wider spread use belief in magic and religion may have contributed to a powerful placebo effect. The impact of the magic is seen in the selection of remedies or ingredients for them. Depiction of a medical kit: 1) knives, 2) drill, 3) saw, 4) forceps or pincers, 5) censer, 6) hooks, 70 bags tied with string,(8, 10) beaked vessel, 11) vase with burning incense, 12) Horus eyes, 13) scales, 14) pot with flowers of Upper and Lowed Egypt, 15) pot on pedestal, 16) graduated cubit or papyrus scroll with out side knot ( or a case holding reed scalpels), 17) shears, 18) spoons. Conclusion: The people of Ancient Egypt made several major medical discoveries and began treating diseases in a physical manner alongside older spiritual cures. Though much of the advancement in medical knowledge and practice was a side effect of religious ceremonies the effect on public health and knowledge of the human body was tremendous. Fuelled by a desire to enter the afterlife Egyptian knowledge of the workings of the body encompassed new areas of medicine ranging from a basic understanding of anatomy to the introduction of some surgical skills. Ancient Egypt References: 1. Allen, Thomas George ;1936, Egyptian Stelae, Field Museum of Natural History: Anthropological Series; Vol. XXIV, No. 1, Chicago 2. Breasted, J. H. (1906) Ancient Records of Egypt 3. Breasted, J. H. (1930) The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus (University of Chicago Press: University of Chicago,) 4. Brian Brown (ed. ) (1923); The Wisdom of the Egyptians. New York: Brentanos 5. Buikstra, J. E. ; Baker, B. J. ; Cook, D. C. (1993) What Disease Plagues the Ancient Egyptians? A Century of Controversy Considered, In Biological Anthropology and the Study of Ancient Egypt (eds. ) W,V. Davies and R. Walter (British Museum Press: London,) 6. Hurry, Jamieson, B. (1926) ; Imhotep, Oxford University Press 7. Nunn, J. F. (1996) Ancient Egyptian Medicine (University of Oklahoma Press: Norman,) 8. Sandison, A. T. ( 1980) Diseases in Ancient Egypt, in Mummies, Disease, and Ancient Cultures (eds. ) Aiden and Eve Cockburn (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 9. Sameh M. Arab, MDMEDICINE IN ANCIENT EGYPT 10. Scarre, Christopher; Fagan, M. Brian; 1997, Ancient Civilizations, Longman 11. mic. ki. se/Egypt. html 12. http://nefertiti. iwebland. com/timelines/topics/medicine. htm